Roots, Revolutions, and Brutality of the Philippine-American War

Written By: Dimple Paz, Edited by: Jovie Galit | Feb 4, 2025 | Photo credit: Wikipedia
The Philippine-American War (1899-1902) was referred to as the second stage of the Philippine Revolution. This period began after the first President of the Philippines, Emilio Aguinaldo, returned to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong on May 19, 1898. He traveled aboard an American cutter from Admiral George Dewey’s fleet, which had defeated Spanish forces in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. The United States had declared war on Spain in April 1898, primarily over events in Cuba, and sent Dewey to Manila to destroy Spain’s naval forces. Initially, there was strong Filipino support for the U.S., as many revolutionaries believed it was aiding their fight for independence. However, tensions grew when it became clear that the U.S. intended to take control of the Philippines rather than grant full sovereignty.
Background and Context
The Philippines has been under Spanish colonial rule for more than 300 years, where the Philippine revolutionaries, led by Andrés Bonifacio, fought for independence. In 1898, the Spanish-American War exploded, and after a decisive victory, the United States seized control of the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris. While the United States has promised to bring order and change to the archipelago, many Filipinos, especially under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, believe that they will finally achieve independence.
The Philippine Revolution (1896–98) was a struggle for Philippine independence that, after more than 300 years of Spain's colonial occupation, exposed the weakness of the Spanish conqueror but failed to expel the Spaniards from the islands. The Spanish-American War was a false resistance, called the "Mock Battle of Manila," an outbreak between American and Spanish forces designed to have "acknowledgment of the American foreigners to calm down and deceive the Filipinos, who only took the United States control of the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris. As the United States promised to bring order and change the archipelago, many Filipinos, especially under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, believed that they would finally achieve independence.
After the Spanish-American war in August 1898, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris. This was signed on December 10, 1898, an agreement that set the conditions, obligations, and benefits for Spain and the United States governments in connection with the islands that Spain surrendered to America. Owned islands: Spain has shifted to the United States control over territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the islands of the Philippines. This happened after the Spanish-American War, where Spain was defeated. Payment Condition - The United States paid $20 million in return for its conquest of the Philippines from Spain.
Maintaining the dominant power of the United States—the United States gives the right to continue managing islands and manage them, including changes in law and government systems. False protection! This agreement licensed the United States to control the political and territorial aspects of the Philippines.
Two days before the US Senate voted to ratify the treaty, fighting broke out between American troops and Filipino revolutionaries who demanded complete independence. The Treaty of Paris marked not only the end of the Spanish-American war but also the beginning of the Philippine-American war. The US got their first colony, and the Filipinos were left to face the new Western conquering force after the Filipinos paid for the Philippines. After the war, Filipinos were not allowed to enter Manila to celebrate their victory.
The Uprising
Andres Bonifacio drew inspiration from the ideals of liberty and equality from the French Revolution and the Filipino desire for freedom. He was influenced by Jose Rizal’s critiques of Spanish rule but recognized the limits of reformism. On July 7, 1892, Bonifacio founded the Katipunan (Kataas-taasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan), uniting workers and peasants under the banner of national liberation.
The Katipunan launched the armed revolution against Spain on August 24, 1896, with forces that spread across Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao. After Rizal's execution, the movement gained momentum, despite being poorly armed, using guerrilla tactics and mass support. By 1898, the Katipunan controlled much of the country.
Although the Katipunan was led by the working masses, it was influenced by bourgeois democrats—members of the middle and upper classes who supported political change but prioritized their own economic and social interests. This allowed the Katipunan to wage war against Spanish rule but left them vulnerable to the political maneuvers of the Ilustrados (elite class), who ultimately had Bonifacio killed and paved the way for U.S. imperialism in the Philippines.
Despite Bonifacio’s death, the Katipunan's resistance continued against US colonization, with uprisings that led to brutal repression, resulting in the deaths of around one million Filipinos. Though the resistance was crushed by 1902, the spirit of national liberation endured, eventually reigniting in the decades to come.
Philippine-American War's Battle of Manila (1899)
The first significant battle of the war, the Battle of Manila was fought on February 4-5, 1899, between 19,000 American soldiers and 15,000 Filipino armed militiamen. The battle showcased American military superiority and marked the beginning of intense conflict throughout the archipelago
In February 1899, Filipino guerrillas frequently ambushed American soldiers traveling between Manila and the front lines. From the start, Filipino forces combined conventional and guerrilla tactics. After the Americans advanced on February 5, many assumed they paused to wait for reinforcements, but fighting continued between February 14 and March 1. From February 22 to 24, General Antonio Luna launched a counterattack on American positions, further escalating the conflict.
Many American soldiers had initially opposed the idea of integrating the Philippines into the United States, having enlisted only for the Spanish-American War. Some even voiced their frustrations in newspaper articles. However, when fighting broke out on February 4, their perspectives quickly shifted. As Filipino forces engaged American troops, opposition to annexation among soldiers faded.
At the war’s outset, few expected it to last long. Yet, it dragged on for over two years, with some areas resisting even longer. What seemed like an easy victory for the Americans soon proved far more difficult than anticipated.
Battle of Balangiga (1901)
One of the most famous battles, the Battle of Balangiga in the town of Samar, was notable for the surprise attack by Filipino guerrillas on American troops stationed in Balangiga. The battle led to severe American reprisals and the destruction of the town. The Balangiga Massacre was one of the bloodiest events during the Philippine-American War.
At first, the residents of Balangiga and the soldiers of Company C, 9th U.S. Infantry Regiment had a good relationship. However, historians note that tensions escalated after two American soldiers allegedly attempted to assault a Filipino woman. When locals intervened to protect her, the soldiers sought revenge. After this incident, the people of Balangiga were forced into hard labor and detention with little food and water. They also protested against American efforts to cut off their food and essential supplies. In response, Police Chief Valeriano Abanador, along with guerrilla leaders Captain Eugenio Daza and Sergeant Pedro Duran Sr., devised a plan to revolt against the Americans.
The uprising took place on September 28, 1901, under the cover of a funeral procession for children who had died of cholera. Abanador led the first strike, attacking an American sentry. As the assault began, the bells of Balangiga Church rang out. Men disguised as women suddenly revealed hidden weapons and attacked the American troops, while other locals joined the fight from within the town.
At least 48 out of 78 American soldiers were killed in an unexpected attack.
The next day, American forces decided to take revenge. General Jacob H. Smith has promised to make Balangiga "Howling Wilderness", earning him the nickname "Howling Jake."
“I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn. The more you kill and burn the better it will please me. I want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms in actual hostilities against the United States, ”Smith said.
His command was further strengthened to "kill all adults over 10." Soldiers burned and robbed the towns of Balangiga. The Americans’ brutal "scorched-earth policy" continued until 1902, destroying the entire town. There are no specific Filipinos killed, but there are reports that say about 2,500 died.
According to a recent study by the Balangiga Research Group, most American soldiers refused the order to kill civilians and instead focused on destroying homes and livelihoods. As a war trophy, they took the bells of Balangiga Church. Two of these bells were kept at the "trophy park" of Francis E. Warren Air Force Base in Wyoming, while the third was placed in a U.S. military unit in South Korea.
As the war turned into a protracted insurgency, Filipino resistance became increasingly decentralized, with local commanders launching guerrilla tactics on the islands. This strategy—attacking small U.S. outposts, ambushing troops, and disrupting supply lines—was difficult for American forces to counter, especially in the dense jungles and difficult land of the Philippines.
The U.S. military, led by General Elwell S. Otis and later General Arthur MacArthur, responded with heavy retaliation, using scorched-earth tactics and moving Filipino civilians to concentration camps to prevent them from helping the guerrillas. American forces also engaged in a brutal intelligence-gathering campaign, which often led to the torture and execution of suspected rebels or revolutionaries.
The US Occupation of the Philippines in an Economical and Political Lens
By 1901, the war had turned in favor of the United States, especially after the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo. Forced to swear allegiance to the U.S., Aguinaldo’s surrender marked a major turning point. By 1902, the war was officially declared over.
However, the end of open warfare did not mean the end of resistance. Filipino revolutionaries continued to fight and organize for years, even as the U.S. maintained control over the Philippines. Full independence was not achieved until the mid-20th century.
The consequences of the war were immense. The Philippines became a colony of America, and the U.S. started the process of "civilization" in the islands by producing infrastructure, education, and the introduction of “democratic systems” under their dictatorship. These steps are viewed by many Filipinos as a continuation of the US control in the Philippines.
Legacy of the War
The Philippine-American War remains a dark chapter in Filipino history. For the Philippines, it was a time of severe suffering, whose whole community was destroyed, countless lives were lost, and a strong battle for independence was eventually destroyed by foreign power. Today, the war is remembered as a painful but important part of the Philippine struggle for independence and the current US imperialist control of the Philippines. May we one day, be forever free from the American occupation.
Sources
- The Philippine-America War (1899-1902), Prof. Bernardita Reyes Churchill, Lasalle University, n.d.
- Huwad na labanan, tunay na pagtataksil, by Manny V, Balita MB, August 2020
- Philippine Revolution, by The Editors of Britannica Encyclopedia Article History, Britannica
- Back-to-back Bonifacio documentaries air Bonifacio Day, GMA News TV, November 30, 2012
- February 4, 1899: The cold war becomes a hot war, January 24, 2024, by Dennis Edward Flake, Inquirer USA
- The bells of Balangiga: from massacre to memoryscape, William N. Holden, Revue, n.d.
- FAST FACTS: Balangiga Massacre, Alex Evangelista, Rappler, Sept 2018
- Progressives commemorate Filipino-American war, call for a stop to US military intervention, Menchani Tilendo, Bulatlat, February 2024
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